Lean Manufacturing | Literature Review

Lean Manufacturing | Literature Review Since the 1980s, numerous businesses in various sectors of industry have continually been introducing programs intended to improve both productivity and quality. Several authors have posited lean manufacturing or lean production as the best possible production system and one that can be implemented in any industry and any process (Bonavia and Marin, 2006 and Lee-Mortimer, 2006). Doolen and Hacker (2005) mentioned that different researchers have explored the portability of lean practices both within and between different manufacturing sectors. In accordance, a variety of surveys conducted in different types of industry (Soriano-Meier and Forrester, 2002, Bonavia and Marin, 2006, Doolen and Hacker, 2005, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001 and Taj, 2008) proved that lean is widely successful in a variety of industrial sectors. However, there are two problematic issues regarding lean manufacturing have been addressed in several studies. First, Shah and Ward (2007) claimed that any discussion of lean production points to an absence of common definition of the concept. Likewise, Pettersen (2009) alleged that there is no agreed upon definition of lean that could be found in the literature. Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak (2005) declared that there is no consensus in different researchers perceptions to the concept of lean which leads to conflicting results in identifying and classifying its practices and techniques. Second, there is conflict in using terms such as elements, principles, constructs, techniques and practices. Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak (2005) mentioned that some of the elements of lean are actually referring to the goals and objectives rather than techniques or tools (e.g. elimination of waste, lead time reduction) and, in addition, a number of other best manufacturing practices (such as agile manufacturing) were used in literature as lean practices. Moreover, Shah and Ward (2007) underscored that identical items are used to operationalize vastly different concepts and different items are used to operationalize the same construct. Thus, Shah and Ward (2007) argued that a great source of confusion and inconsistency associated with lean is the more substantive disagreement about what comprises lean production and how it can be measured operationally. Statement of the problem The above mentioned issues revealed three confusions surrounding the lean concept in literature, which are (1) the lack of a consistent definition of lean, (2) the disagreement about the elements that comprise lean manufacturing and (3) the lack of a measurement tool for assessing changes towards lean implementation. With the aim to clarify and resolve these confusions, this chapter has three main objectives; (1) to propose a conceptual definition of the term lean manufacturing that captures all its main facets, (2) to provide a framework that identifies its major elements and practices, and (3) to develop an operationalized model to assess changes towards lean manufacturing implementation. To achieve these objectives, an in-depth literature review is conducted regarding the topic of lean manufacturing. At first, the concept of Lean and its main principles are introduced. Next, the elements of lean manufacturing and the practices for lean implementation will be investigated. Finally, different indicators that measure the progress achieved towards lean are explored. The concept of Lean Lean was associated with the practice of deciphering the value added activities from those that are waste in an organization and its supply chain (Comm and Mathaisel, 2005). Motwani (2003) declared that companies need to focus on each product and its value stream in order to distinguish between wasted activities and that actually create value. Moreover, Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak (2005) stated that leanness was introduced as an approach to manufacturing that was aiming at the elimination of waste while stressing the need for continuous improvement. However, lean manufacturing is much more than a technique, it is, in addition, a way of thinking (Taj, 2008). The issue of lean thinking was widely discussed in different researches. Comm and Mathaisel (2005) believed that lean thinking removes the traditional way people think about roles and responsibilities through remaining focused on the customer and the core competencies that the customer values from an organization. Therefore, Bhasin and Burcher (2006) claimed that for a successful implementation, numerous cultural changes are required for embracing empowerment and disseminating the lean principles through-out the value chain. Similarly, Taj (2008) confirmed that lean as a way of thinking creates a culture in which everyone in the organization continuously improve operations. In accordance, Comm and Mathaisel (2000) introduced leanness as a philosophy that intended to significantly reduce cost and cycle time throughout the entire value chain while continuing to improve product performance. Hence, lean should be described from two points of view; the philosophical perspective and the practical perspective (Shah and Ward, 2007). From the philosophical perspective, lean is viewed as an overall organizational philosophy that should affect the people way of thinking and behaving (Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak, 2005 and Bhasin and Burcher, 2006). This philosophy drives the guiding principles and the overarching goals of lean (Shah and Ward, 2007). On the other hand, the practical perspective see lean as a set of management practices, tools and techniques (Shah and Ward, 2007) that are used to apply the philosophy and to achieve the goals (Bhasin and Burcher, 2006). This two-perspective view of lean is supported by the definition of lean as a socio-technical system. Such system combines both technical system; i.e. technology and social system; i.e. people and organizational structure (Bhasin and Burcher, 2006). In the same context, Shah and Ward (2007) asserted that to pursue lean production, firms have to effectively manage their social and technical systems simultaneously. Moreover, Cua et al. (2001) proved that joint optimization of both socially- and technically-oriented policies or practices is necessary for achieving good results. Regarding its implementation, Panizzolo (1998) demonstrated that the wide range of lean practices are related to interventions in the manufacturing area, actions taken in other areas of the firm (design, HR, strategy, etc.) and relationships with both suppliers and customers. Likewise, Shah and Ward (2003) stated that lean should be seen as a multi-dimensional approach that encompasses a wide variety of management practices. This conceptualization of lean as multidimensional strategy is supported by a wide range of researchers (Doolen and Hacker, 2005, Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996, Shah and Ward, 2007 and Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak, 2005). However, it is well accepted among researchers that lean should be implemented as an integrated system (Shah and Ward, 2007, Bhasin and Burcher, 2006, Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996 and Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak, 2005). Shah and Ward (2007) suggested that a well-developed lean strategy implementation will require firms to exert considerable effort along several dimensions simultaneously. Bonavia and Marin (2006) concluded that there are only few relationships between the degree of use of lean production practices individually and operational performance (in terms of productivity, quality, lead time and inventory). In the same vein, Shah and Ward (2003) provide unambiguous evidence that the synergistic effects of all lean practices are associated with better manufacturing performance. Another feature of lean manufacturing that was emphasized in literature is its time-frame of implementation. Bhasin and Burcher (2006) and Doolen and Hacker (2005) believed that lean is a long-term multidimensional organizational strategy. Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak (2005) affirmed that transformation to lean requires a lot of effort, time and participation of all organization levels in addition to make changes in company culture and organizational structure. Thus, lean enterprises should continuously find ways to eliminate consumption of resources in their struggle to deliver value to their customers. In correspondence, the implementation of the lean program in the case study discussed in (Lee-Mortimer, 2006) proved that lean is not just a project, it is a long-term continuous journey which is implemented as a sequence of stages or projects. In conclusion, lean manufacturing embraces different features that should be taken into consideration when defining this concept. Lean should be viewed as a philosophy, affecting company culture, rather than a set of tools/techniques. This, in turn, reveals the importance of managing social system as well as technical system simultaneously. Moreover, lean implementation scope is not confined to the manufacturing function of a company, rather it relates to all functions ranging from product development, procurement and manufacturing over to distribution. Since lean companies seek to deliver value to their customers, this value should be predefined and delivered, while waste, which customers are not willing to pay for, should continuously be eliminated. All the aforementioned features of lean manufacturing can be captured in the following proposed conceptual definition. Lean manufacturing is a philosophy and a long-term strategy that is applied through a socio-technical system integrating all functions within the organization with the aim of continuous waste elimination while delivering outcomes that meet continuously predefined customer value. Lean principles Lean philosophy is mainly based on the principle of eliminating waste. Waste is anything other than the minimum amount of equipment, materials, parts, and working time that are essential to add value (Taj, 2008, Bonavia and Marin, 2006 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) cited that the main goal of lean is to eliminate all activities that do not add value to the product. Value should be specified as it is perceived by customers (Andersson et al., 2006 and Dahlgaard and Dahlgaard-Park, 2006). If the task does not add value from the customers point of view, it should be modified or eliminated from the process (Andersson et al., 2006). It is believed that by minimizing waste and zero-value added activities, companies can reduce production costs and the overall production system will be more efficient (Comm and Mathaisel, 2005 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Since inventory is considered one of the critical sources of waste (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996), Dahlgaard and Dahlgaard-Park (2006) declared that the traditional way of producing in batches is inefficient as it requires goods to wait in inventories before the next production step is started up. Thus, Motwani (2003) mentioned that the value must flow to the customer without interruptions. Andersson et al. (2006) confirmed that focus should be on organizing a continuous flow through the production or supply chain rather than moving commodities in large batches. Closely related to the continuous flow is the principle of just-in-time (JIT), since the ultimate goal that every process should be provided with only one part at a time, exactly when that part is needed (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Moreover, if continuous flow is not possible (Lummus et al., 2006), the way of scheduling the flow of material should be pull instead of push (Motwani, 2003 and Dahlgaard and Dahlgaard-Park, 2006). This means that customer demand should pull finished products through the system with the aim of not carrying out any work unless the result of it is required downstream (Andersson et al., 2006). It is obvious that to succeed in the implementation of any modern system, everyone from top management to any lower level should make sincere efforts, and set their goals jointly through active participation and understanding (Ahmed et al., 2004). According to (McKone et al., 1999), employees can contribute significantly to the organization when they are allowed to participate in decisions that impact their area of responsibility. As a result, involvement from all employees allows companies to better use of its available resources (McKone et al., 1999). This principle reflects the conceptualization of lean manufacturing as a socio-technical system, since it highlights the importance of managing social system as well as technical system. Since lean is viewed as a long-term strategy, lean philosophy emphasizes continuous improvement. Several researchers (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996, Comm and Mathaisel, 2005 and Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001) affirmed that one of the most fundamental principles of lean is the search for continuous improvement in products and processes. Lummus et al. (2006) mentioned that processes should be managed towards perfection to continuously reduce the time needed to serve the customer. Likewise, Andersson et al. (2006) underscored that the elimination of non-value-adding elements (waste) is a process of continuous improvement. In this context, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) highlighted the importance of employees involvement and top management support to create and train improvement teams that lead the organization to move toward zero defects. Based on the analysis of lean previous studies, it is concluded that there are five key principles / overarching goals which can be considered the bases for the lean philosophy. These principles are; (1) waste elimination, (2) customer value identification, (3) continuous production flow, (4) employees involvement and (5) continuous improvement. Furthermore, the aforesaid lean principles confirm some issues in the proposed conceptual definition. The unambiguous believe that elimination of waste is the fundamental goal is affirmed since lean is regularly defined as manufacturing without waste. Likewise, identifying value as perceived by customer is asserted in the proposed definition. Moreover, seeking continuous improvement as a principle of lean philosophy reflects the long-term nature of lean implementation. Thus, the proposed definition stresses the aim of continuous waste elimination and highlighted the need to continuously predefine customer value. Also, the importance of employ ees involvement emphasizes the social phase of the lean system as a socio-technical system. Finally, holding in mind these principles / goals underscores the view of lean as a philosophy that affects the people way of thinking. Lean implementation framework Previous studies concerning lean manufacturing revealed a number of manufacturing practices that are commonly associated with lean implementation. The initial step towards developing a framework for lean implementation is to capture different practices and combine them into inter-related groups in accordance to the multi-dimensional nature of lean manufacturing. The term practices in this context refers to the predominant methodologies that may include many techniques and tools. Shah and Ward (2003) identified and empirically validated combining lean practices into four specific lean bundles: namely Total Quality Management (TQM), Just In Time (JIT), Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) and Human Resources Management (HRM). Bonavia and Marin (2006) found enough agreement in literature to identify the first three bundles; TQM, JIT and TPM, while Cua et al. (2001) are of the opinion that human and strategic-oriented practices are common practices that support all other three bundles. Although there is general agreement within operations management literature that JIT, TPM, TQM and HRM are conceptually, theoretically, and empirically well established (Shah and Ward, 2003), there is no unanimous classification of the lean manufacturing practices that make up each of the four bundles (Bonavia and Marin, 2006). Therefore, in an attempt to provide a framework for lean implementation comprises the actual practices that represent each of the four mentioned bundles, the basic theme of these bundles are identified. Then, different lean practices are combined into each of these bundles based on reviewing different research papers regarding lean implementation practices, in addition to articles that were focused mainly on one of these bundles. TQM bundle Lack of quality is a major source of waste, since the defective parts and products that need to be reworked or scrapped do not add any value to the customer and should be eliminated in order to attain high productivity (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Sà ¶derquist and Motwani (1999) underscored that quality should be a top management issue and continuous improvement efforts together with the zero error objective should be company-wide and extended over company limits in production chains. Cua et al. (2001) defined total quality management (TQM) as a manufacturing program aimed at continuously improving and sustaining quality products and processes by capitalizing on the involvement of management, workforce, suppliers, and customers, in order to meet or exceed customer expectations. Sà ¶derquist and Motwani (1999) emphasized that TQM approach is the philosophy that should underpin the quality project in a lean company. The practices combined to form the TQM bundle include; product quality control, visual management (Cua et al., 2001, McKone et al., 1999 and Sà ¶derquist and Motwani, 1999), process management (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999), product design and development (Cua et al., 2001 and Sà ¶derquist and Motwani, 1999), standardization (Sà ¶derquist and Motwani, 1999), suppliers quality management and customers involvement (Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999). JIT bundle Just-in-time philosophy means to deliver the right part in the necessary quantity and at the right time (Canel et al., 2000, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Ahmed et al. (2004) defined JIT as a philosophy and system concept of doing, maintaining and producing what is value adding or what is just needed, be it raw materials, components, parts, WIP, employees, or finished products. Cua et al. (2001) asserted that the primary goal of JIT, as a manufacturing program, is continuously reducing and ultimately eliminating all forms of waste through JIT production and involvement of the work force. JIT basic techniques include set-up time and lot size reduction, pull production systems (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999), equipment layout and cellular manufacturing (Shah and Ward, 2003 and Cua et al., 2001), production leveling and scheduling and JIT delivery by suppliers (Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999). TPM bundle It has been accepted beyond any doubt that maintenance, as a support function in businesses, plays an important role in backing up many emerging business and operation strategies like lean manufacturing (Ahuja and Khamba, 2008b). Without having a productive maintenance system, lean production, just-in-time (JIT) or total quality management (TQM) environment cannot be attained (Ahmed et al., 2004). TPM is a proven and successful procedure for introducing maintenance considerations into organizational activities (Eti et al., 2004). Ahuja and Khamba (2008b) stated that TPM is a methodology originating from Japan to support its lean manufacturing system, since dependable and effective equipment are essential pre-requisite for implementing lean manufacturing initiatives in the organizations. Cua et al. (2001) and Shah and Ward (2003) defined TPM as a manufacturing program designed primarily to maximize equipment effectiveness throughout its entire life through the participation and motivation of the entire work force for performing planned predictive and preventive maintenance of the equipment and using maintenance optimization techniques. TPM, according to McKone et al. (1999), provides a comprehensive company-wide approach to maintenance management which is usually divided into short-term and long-term elements. In the short-term, TPM basic practices include; industrial housekeeping, autonomous maintenance (Cua et al., 2001, Eti et al., 2004 and McKone et al., 1999), and planned preventive and predictive maintenance (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001, Eti et al., 2004 and McKone et al., 1999). In the long-term, TPM efforts focus on new equipment and technology acquisition (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999). HRM bundle Human resources have a critical role in carrying out the continuous improvement plans which are the basis for success in lean implementation (Panizzolo, 1998). Eti et al. (2004) claimed that the degree of employees eagerness to embrace change determines the rate of progress towards that goal. Moreover, McKone et al. (1999) declared that employees are the greatest sources of information for companies to improve their performance. Shah and Ward (2003) affirmed that the HRM bundle has significant theoretical and empirical support. The most commonly cited HRM practices are employees involvement (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999), multi-skilled workforce, multi-functional work teams (Shah and Ward, 2003), education and training (Shah and Ward, 2003, Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999), performance-based compensation system (McKone et al., 1999) and information and feedback (Cua et al., 2001 and McKone et al., 1999). Lean operationalized model Traditionally, managers have relied heavily on accounting metrics to determine efficiency, such metrics reflect the final state achieved as the result of a long chain of decisions (Taj, 2008), while lean should be seen as a direction rather than a state to be reached after a certain time (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Therefore, managing a lean factory requires key information to assess the changes taking place in the effort to introduce lean (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Consequently, in order to develop an operationalized model for lean manufacturing, the aforementioned bundles and practices will be discussed with focus on identifying the indicators that can be used in assessing changes towards lean implementation. It is important here to note that the focus lies on the changes in these indicators, not on their actual values. So, the desired direction of each indicator, if moving in a lean direction, will be also specified. Measurement of TQM basic practices Since the ultimate goal of TQM practices is to achieve zero defects, Motwani (2001) mentioned that the percentage of defects (TQM1) and the percentage of products needing rework (TQM2) are among the common quality outcome indicators employed by several researchers. Product quality can be controlled through the involvement of production line workers for identification and adjustment of defective parts and their authority to stop lines when defective parts are found in order to avoid any defective parts moving to the next production stage (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Thus, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) used the percentage of defective parts adjusted by production line workers (TQM3) as an indicator of transferring the responsibility for products quality from the quality control department to the line workers. In addition, Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m (1996) alleged that the number of quality control personnel (TQM4) and the size of repair area (TQM5) can be reduced as a consequence. Furthermore, Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m (1996) declared the use of autonomous defect control (poka yoke) as inexpensive means to help conducting inspection of all units with the ultimate goal of zero defects. Therefore, the percentage of inspection carried out by autonomous defect control (TQM6) is a common measure (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001 and Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Visible graphs and panels are used to gather performance data, to plot different measurements and to identify specific problems and causes of delay in order to take efforts for resolution (Lee-Mortimer, 2006 and Bonavia and Marin, 2006). For this, Bonavia and Marin (2006) measured the percentage of work areas where visible graphs panels are used (TQM7) as an indicator for visual management. In addition to controlling products quality, process management is essential to obtain fault free parts and products from the very beginning (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). Cua et al. (2001) emphasized the use of Statistical Process Control (SPC) techniques in monitoring processes to ensure that each process will supply defect free units to subsequent process. Shah and Ward (2007) and Bonavia and Marin (2006) measured the percentage of equipment / processes under SPC (TQM8) as an indicator to represent the expansion of using SPC. Panizzolo (1998) emphasized the attention that has been devoted to the relationships between product development and manufacturing activities. Sà ¶derquist and Motwani (1999) claimed that design for manufacturing through integrating product and process engineering is one of the core features of quality management within the lean production framework. Thus, the percentage of parts designed by cross-functional teams (TQM9) can be used as a measure for this practice. In addition, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) mentioned the use of common parts (TQM10) to manufacture different products as a technique used to reduce inventory and lead times as well. Moreover, participation of suppliers in the design stage (TQM11) facilitates manufacturing of components they have designed. Standardization is an essential principle of lean manufacturing that involves establishing the sequence of tasks to be done by each worker and how those tasks are done (Olivella et al, 2008), measuring and comparing the cycle time against the required takt time (Motwani, 2003) and specifying procedures, tools and materials (Bonavia and Marin, 2006). The percentage of procedures which are written recorded (TQM12) is the measure used by Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) and Bonavia and Marin (2006) to quantify the extent to which the company standardize its operations. Several researches emphasized the significant role that suppliers can play when involved in quality improvement programs (Panizzolo, 1998, Shah and Ward, 2007, Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak, 2005 and Motwani, 2003). In order to enhance suppliers involvement, Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez (2001) stressed the importance of information exchange with suppliers through conducting visits by engineers and technicians from both sides and interchanging documents. This will help to reduce inefficiencies and eliminate activities that are not value added (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001). This practice is measured by two indicators; the frequency of visits between companys and suppliers technicians (TQM13) and the number of suggestions made to suppliers (TQM14) (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001). With the focus on customers and their needs, Motwani (2001) declared that customer service programs should include quick responsiveness to complaints and maintaining a corporate goal to reduce the quantity of complaints (TQM15). Furthermore, Panizzolo (1998) affirmed that customer-driven enterprises dedicated much attention to organize customer participation in design, manufacturing and delivery activities. Thus, Bhasin and Burcher (2006) considered the percentage of projects in which the customer was involved (TQM16) as a signal of the systematically and continuously focus on the customer. In conclusion, table 3.1 summarizes the indicators developed to assess changes towards implementing the previously discussed TQM practices. Measurement of JIT basic practices Several authors (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001, Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996, Lee-Mortimer, 2006 and Salaheldin, 2005) have proposed the value of WIP (JIT1) and the lead time to customer order (JIT2) as common indicators of JIT implementation. Moreover, Motwani (2003) and Bhasin (2008) affirmed that total product cycle time (total time that material spends in the production system) (JIT3) is the best measure for tracking lean progress. Reducing set-up times simultaneously with reducing lot sizes is a technique used to reduce inventories and also it contributes to the reduction of lead times (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001) and increasing flexibility (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996). The progress in this practice can be directly measured by two indicators; set-up times (JIT4) and production and delivery lot sizes (JIT5). Firms use pull production systems to facilitate JIT production with the aim to produce the kind of units needed, at the time needed, and in the quantities needed (Shah and Ward, 2007). Bonavia and Marin (2006), Cua et al. (2001), McKone et al. (1999) and Shah and Ward (2007) highlighted the use of kanban squares, containers or signals as a means to pull material from an upstream station and manage product flow. Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m (1996) argued that as the work with implementing pull system proceeded, the number of manufacturing stages producing against customer orders should extend. Accordingly, they considered the percentage of stages in the material flow that uses pull (JIT6) as a determinant of the change towards this practice. Cua et al. (2001) and McKone et al. (1999) emphasized the importance of equipment layout to facilitate low inventories (JIT1) and fast throughput (i.e. shorten lead time (JIT3)). Grouping machines together in a cell-based layout (Cellular manufacturing) is one technique that is developed to facilitate line balancing with the ultimate goal of creating single piece flow (Lee-Mortimer, 2006 and Motwani, 2003). Implementing cellular manufacturing technique helps to eliminate the frequency (JIT7) and physical distances (JIT8) of parts transportation (Karlsson and Ã…hlstrà ¶m, 1996) and to reduce the investments (JIT9) in handling systems (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001). Panizzolo (1998) considered production leveling as a practice, in addition to small lots and pull control that is adopted to synchronize production and market demand. Thus, this practice contributes in achieving reductions in the value of WIP (JIT1) and the lead times to customer order (JIT2). Moreover, the synchronization between production output and market demand helps company to minimize finished goods inventory (JIT10). Suppliers are required to deliver the right quantity, at the right time, and at the right quality (Shah and Ward, 2007) in order to facilitate JIT production. Many researches agreed on the importance of reducing the number of key suppliers (JIT11) for the main components and engaging with them in long term contracts (JIT12) (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001, McKone et al., 1999, Shah and Ward, 2007, Doolen and Hacker, 2005, Bhasin and Burcher, 2006 and Papadopoulou and ÃÆ'-zbayrak, 2005). Furthermore, the case study of (Comm and Mathaisel, 2005) highlighted how maintaining good relationships with suppliers helped to keep minimum raw material inventories (JIT13). In general, McKone et al. (1999) highlighted the importance of on-time delivery (JIT14) to customers as an indicator of the JIT concept implementation. Likewise, Bhasin (2008) mentioned measuring on-time delivery as one of the customer / market indicators of lean implementation. In the same vein, Motwani (2001) recommended monitoring the amount of lateness in orders delivery as a tool in measuring the spread of delivery time. Furthermore, since the change towards JIT production and delivery is made gradually (Sà ¡nchez and Pà ©rez, 2001), the proportion of products transferred just-in-time between production stages (JIT15) and that delivered just-in-time by suppliers (JIT16) should be measured. Table 3.2 summarizes the indicators developed to assess changes towards implementing the previously discussed JIT practices. Measurement of TPM basic practices It is agreed upon in literature that overall equipment effectiveness OEE ( Adaptive Immune Response: Case Study Adaptive Immune Response: Case Study Adaptive Response Abstract Adaptive immunity is an important part of the immune system. It is the third line of defense in the human body, which includes highly specialized systemic cells and processes that eliminate or prevent pathogenic growth. Once external barriers have been compromised and inflammation (innate immunity) has been activated, the adaptive response is called into action (Huether McCance, 2012). It develops slower than the innate inflammatory response and is specific—unlike inflammation, which is non-specific—and has immunological memory that recognizes each pathogen by a signature antibody (Huether McCance, 2012). In addition, the activated B cells and T cells can develop to memory cells that respond rapidly and efficiently to a subsequent encounter with a pathogen. Adaptive immunity response primary obligation is destroying infectious agents that are resistant to inflammation and provides long-term protection against future exposure to the same agents (Huether McCance, 2012) . Adaptive Response The adaptive response consists of an antibody response and cell-medicated response, which are carried out by different lymphocytes cells, B cells and T cells respectively. B cells (B indicates bone marrow) are the major cells involved in the creation of antibodies that circulate in blood plasma and lymph, where they have capacity bind to almost any foreign antigen found in the environment (Huether McCance, 2012). Binding of antibody inactivates virus and microbial toxins by blocking their ability to bind to receptors on host cells. Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulin, are large Y shaped proteins, which are typically composed of two large heavy pair chains and two small light chains (Huether McCance, 2012). There are five types of immunoglobulin: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, which are characterized by differences in structure and function, each has evolved to handle particular antigens (Huether McCance, 2012). The antibody responses are also called humoral immunity. Another ad aptive response is known as cell-medicated immunity responses that activate T cells to combat against a foreign antigen presented on the surface of a host cell. Also, T cells produce signal molecules that trigger macrophages, natural killers (NK), antigen specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and release of various cytokines in responses to an antigen (Huether McCance, 2012). The purpose of this paper is to explain pathophysiology of disorders presented in the scenarios, including associated alterations, and adaptive responses to the alteration as well as construct a mind map for the selected disorder. Furthermore, consider the epidemiology, pathophysiology, risks factors, clinical presentation, and diagnosis of the disorder and any adaptive responses to alteration. Scenario 1: The first scenario the patient’s mother mentioned that Jennifer is usually healthy and has no significant medical history. However, physical examination revealed clinical manifestations, which include fever; tympanic membranes slightly redden on the periphery, throat erythematous with 4+ tonsils and diffuse exudate; anterior cervical nodes palpable and tender to touch. The child indicated throat hurts and painful to swallow. Vital signs reveal increased temperature, pulse and respiratory rate that suggested tonsillitis disorder. Pathophysiology Tonsillitis is an inflammatory condition of the tonsils due to bacteria, allergies or respiratory problems (Tonsillitis, 2014). When inflamed, tonsils become swollen and red with a grayish or yellowish coating on its surface. Tonsillitis usually begins with a sudden sore throat and painful swallowing. Tonsillitis causes tonsils and throat tissues to swell obstructing air from passing in and out of the respiratory system (Huether McCance, 2012). The tonsils infection is common in children under age six and teenagers but rare in adults. The adaptive response activates the different B cells and T cells lymphocytes to eliminate the alteration, so body can return back to hemostasis. Scenario 2: Pathophysiology Irritant contact dermatitis is a common nonimmunologically mediated inflammation arising from the release of proinflammatory cytokines from skin cells (principally keratinocytes), usually in responses to chemical stimuli such as cleansers, soap detergent, and various chemical agents (Hogan Elson, 2013). The main pathophysiological changes are skin barrier disruption, epidermal cellular changes and cytokine release. Irritant contact dermatitis is a major occupational disease; skin disorders comprise up to 40% of occupational illness (Hogan Elson, 2013). Patient work history is crucial in making diagnoses, and appearance of the skin. It may be treated with topical agents such as corticosteroid skin creams, emollients or moisturizers to prevent further irritation (Hogan Elson, 2013). Scenario 2: The patient presented with redness and irritation of his hands. The history revealed no allergies or significant medical history except for recurrent ear infections as a child. He denied any unknown exposure to irritants. Also, patient admits to working in maintenance and often working with abrasive solvent and chemical. Normally he wears gloves, but this particular time the patient did not wear gloves. He exposed his hands to some cleaning solutions. The patient’s detailed history and clinical manifestations led the student to a diagnosis of irritant contact dermatitis. Pathophysiology Stress is any situation that results in a reaction of the human body called the stress response (Huether McCance, 2012). The stress response is a set of adaptations that are mobilized throughout the body to correct state of allostatic imbalance. This involves a fairly stereotyped set neural an endocrine changes. A critical one is the secretion of catecholamines-epinephrine and norepinephrine from the nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system projecting throughout the body (Huether McCance, 2012). Catecholamine induces vasoconstriction and increases in heart rate and blood pressure. It also increases the amount of nutrient and oxygen that is available to the muscle’s reaction during a stress response (Huether McCance, 2012). Another is secretion by the adrenal glands of a class of steroid hormones called glucocorticoids (GCs) ((Huether McCance, 2012). While there is an array of additional changes in levels of various hormones during stress (generally an increase in ci rculating levels of glucagon, prolactin, and beta-endorphin, decreases in insulin and reproductive hormones), secretion of GCs and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system constitute workhorses of the stress response (Huether McCance, 2012). Some common symptoms can include: increase heart rate, chest pain, poor appetite, depression, and insomnia. Usually, coping strategies are beneficial in helping individuals manage stress physical and psychological (Huether McCance, 2012). Adaptive responses help prepare the body for fight or flight by activating adaptive immunity response to correct imbalance. Scenario 3: The patient in this case study recently retired from her job as an administrative assistance at a local hospital. She does have a history of hypertensive, but controlled for years with medication. Patient reported having problem sleeping, occasionally rapid heart rate, and decrease appetite. She also mentioned her 87-year old mother moved in a few years ago after falling down a flight of stairs and broken her hip. Martha is taking care of her mother who requires enormous amount assistance with activities of daily living. She is worried about her own health at her age and sleep habits therefore clinical manifestations suggested stress disorder. Mind Map for Tonsillitis Disorder Epidemiology Irritant contact dermatitis is common in occupations that involve repeated hand washing or repeated exposure of the skin to water, food materials, and other irritants. High-risk occupations include maintenance, health care workers food preparation, and hairstylists (Hogan Elson, 2013). The prevalence of occupational hand dermatitis was found to be 55.6% in 2 intensive care units and was 69.7% in the most highly exposed workers. Irritant contact dermatitis is significantly more common in women than men. The high frequency of hand eczema in women in comparison with men is caused by environmental factors, not genetic factors. Pathophysiology Irritant Contact Dermatitis (ICD) is a common nonimmunologically mediated inflammation arising from the release of proinflammatory cytokines from skin cells (principally keratinocytes), usually in responses to chemical stimuli such as cleansers, soap detergent, and various chemical agents (Hogan Elson, 2013). The main pathophysiological changes are skin barrier disruption, epidermal cellular changes and cytokine release hones naà ¯ve T- lymphocytes to the skin. Patients with altered barrier function are more prone to ICD. Risk factors People who work in occupational hazard environment and handles irritant such as cleaners, nurses, construction workers, mechanics, and agricultural workers are at risk for developing irritant contact dermatitis (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Another risk factor is younger workers often less experienced than their older colleagues or may have a more careless attitude about safety measures causing them to develop the disorder (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Clinical presentation Clinically, irritant contact dermatitis presents with scaly erythematous plaques, cracking of the skin, inflammation, dryness, and fissuring. It commonly involves web spaces that extend to the dorsal and ventral surface of the hand and fingers (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Vesicles do not typically form. Pruritus can be mild; however, stinging, burning and pain are frequently reported symptoms. Diagnosis Irritant contact dermatitis does not need a specific test because ICD can be diagnosed through clinical examination and a careful history. A clinical examination must include a careful look at the distribution of the dermatitis (palmar, dorsal, face, abdomen, web spaces, and fingernails) as well as the extension of dermatitis to wrists or forearms (Mayo Clinic, 2012). The history should include a questionnaire that addresses the individual name and address of the employer; the worker’s job’s title and a description of functions. The worker should provide a list of all chemicals handled and supply information about them, such as found on the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) in order to provide an appropriate diagnosis (Mayo Clinic, 2012). Adaptive responses to alteration Harding or accommodation has been defined as the adaptation of the skin from altered local expression of multiple cytokines and inflammatory mediators with repeated irritation from skin irritants. Accommodated skin has a relatively thicker layer of stratum granulosum versus normal skin. Accommodated skin may exhibit a slight sheen and glossy appearance with a mild scale. On manipulation, there may also be a slight loss of elasticity (Huether McCance, 2012). Conclusion When successful, an adaptive immune response terminates infection and provides long-lasting protective immunity against the pathogen that provoked response. Adaptive immunity is an evolving process within a person’s lifetime, in which each infection changes the make-up of that individual’s lymphocyte population. Adaptive immunity is an evolving process within a person’s lifetime, in which each infection changes the make-up of that individual’s lymphocyte population (Huether McCance, 2012). These changes are neither inherited nor passed on but, during the course of a lifetime, they determine a person’s fitness and their susceptibility to disease. Failures to develop a successful adaptive response can arise from inherited deficiencies in the immune system or from the pathogen’s ability to escape, avoid, or subvert the immune response. Such failures can lead to debilitating chronic infections or death (Huether McCance, 2012). References Golden, S. Shaw, T. (2013). Hand dermatitis: Review of clinical features and treatment options. Retrieved from www.cutis.com/fileadmin/content†¦/SCMS_vol32_No3_Golden.pdf Hogan, D., Elston, D. M. (2013). Irritant contact dermatitis. Medscape. Retrieved from emedicine.medscape.com/article/1049353-overview Huether, S. E., McCance, K. L. (2012). Understanding pathophysiology (Laureate custom ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby. Mayo Clinic. (2012). Tonsillitis. Retrieved from www.mayoclinic.org/diseases†¦/tonsillitis/†¦/con-20023538 Tonsillitis. (2014). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://wwe.britannica.com/Ebchecked/topic/599370/tonsillitis

Fighting in Hockey

Still today, there is a continued debate on whether fighting should be allowed or banned in the National Hockey League (NHL). In generalization, most people see that physically fighting someone, fist-to-fist, is a negative conflict. However, in certain sports fighting is the main objective of the sport. For instance boxing, kickboxing, or the rising sport of UFC (Ultimate Fighting Championship). Then people look at NHL, and point out that fighting is not the main purpose or goal of the sport. People who disapprove of the fighting also believe that getting rid of the fights in hockey may draw in new fans. Fans that may see this newly constructed form of hockey as â€Å"family-friendly†. Although these people are trying to persuade the league into banning fights, there main focus as fans of the NHL, and maybe even the parents of the kids who play hockey, are to argue that fighting invokes a unsafe playing environment for the players, and also gives a bad national image to the sport of hockey and the good fundamentals of sportsmanship in general. Hockey may be a full contact sport, but many concerned people believe that banning fights in hockey leads to a safer environment for athletes to compete in, and can also have many other benefits to the sport. Although banning fights in the NHL may have its benefits, fighting should not be eliminated from the sport of hockey in the NHL because of the tradition it upholds, the loss of fans, the fact that hockey is already â€Å"physical† and entertains people. So why is the issue of hockey fights being debated in the NHL? It’s mainly due to the concern for the safety of the athletes, who by the way are professionals, which means that money is involved if injury was to occur. With economics being meshed into the issue, fighting becomes a huge reason why this topic is highly argued amongst the fans, players, general mangers, and even the team owners. With possible money issues and athlete injury risks on the line, why not just get rid of fighting now? EVIDENCE SECTION) In my major essay to counter act the fact that fights can lead to money loss due to the injury of a player, I will state that many people that watch the NHL are mostly intrigued and excited by the fights. According to the National Hockey League Fans Association (NHLFA) 91% of the fans oppose the full ban of fights in NHL games (www. nhlfa. com). So with the absence of fights in the NHL, there will be a loss of fans that watch the sport on television, and also a loss in attendance of fans at the sporting event. With less people interested of the sport, and less people watching the game either at home or at the event, there will be greater economic loss to a team with less revenue and income, than just losing a player for an amount of time. Another piece of evidence that will be brought in is the fact that fighting in hockey is a tradition. By removing fights, you are essentially removing a part of the sport itself. I will also mention that athletes who go into the profession of hockey realize that fighting is tolerated, and are aware of the risks. Not to mention it’s already a physical sport that involves a lot of risks. Back to fighting being a tradition of the NHL. Fighting has been tolerated for the NHL’s history of 94 years, but I must point out that it is penalized and regulated. So fight someone at the risk of your health, and the risk of your team winning the game. Another way to look at this is that fighting adds flare to the game. Kind of like how dunks in basketball adds flare. Essentially fighting and dunking are there to make the game more entertaining for its fans/audience, which means that if it’s more entertaining maybe a higher fan base can be achieve. Which of course leads to more money. It’s all about the money! (www. hockeyhistory. org) So why did I choose this topic and why is it an important issue? Personally I have never played hockey (competitively), but I am an avid sports fan and have seen some NHL games on T. V. I was watching ESPN one day and there was a debate on this issue between a hockey analyst and a former player and found the topic very interesting. This debate/topic is important because in the future if the rules of the game were to be changed, whether fighting stays or leaves, it could drastically change the sport itself, its fan base, and may even hurt the NHL greatly in an economic sense. Bibliography http://www. usatoday. com/sports/2004-09-02-pros-cons-fighting_x. htm http://sports. espn. go. com/nhl/columns/story? columnist=buccigross_john&id=2724254 http://www. nhl. com/ice/news. htm? id=413089 http://www. nhlfa. com/news/nr04_09_07. asp http://www. hockeyhistory. org/

Effects of Junk Food

Junk Food Sucks Eating  junk food  can have a significant impact on one's health. Though many people enjoy eating  junk  food  and think it tastes great. The term â€Å"junk  food†Ã‚  typically refers to foods that are relatively high in caloric content, but low in nutritional value. Junk  food  is often high in sugar, salt, white flour, and fat. A few examples of foods often considered to be  junk  food  include fast  food, sweets such as ice cream, candy, donuts, and prepackaged treats, soda, and  potato  chips, among many others.The effects of eating too much junk food are lower energy levels, can weight gain  and led to illness and diabetes. The first effect of  eating  junk  food  is its impact on energy levels. Many people skip breakfast or other meals throughout the day, choosing instead to grab a quick snack or a soft drink. The junk  food  causes energy levels to spike, which people like, but then energy levels will quickly dr op, sending one back into the kitchen for another quick snack.The high levels of sugar in junk food puts your metabolism under stress; when you eat refined sugar, your pancreas secretes high amounts of insulin to prevent a dangerous spike in blood sugar levels. In addition,  junk  food  can cause moodiness, and make it difficult to get enough sleep at night, so energy levels are never restored to normal. (Junk Food) Second effect from eating junk food is weight gain.People who eat a lot of  junk  food  tend to gain weight quickly, which can lead to obesity over time; this extra weight then has an impact on the health of the rest of the body. It can raise  cholesterol  and blood pressure, contributing to  heart disease. The high levels of fat and sodium in junk food can cause high blood pressure or hypertension. Excessive dietary sodium can also have a negative effect on renal function, even leading to kidney disease. High levels of dietary fat lead to poor cognitiv e performance.You'll feel tired and have trouble concentrating because your body might not be getting enough oxygen. (Nutrition) Third effect of eating too much junk food is Diabetes. Over time, the high levels of sugar and simple carbohydrates in junk food can lead to type 2 diabetes. This occurs because eating too much sugar puts your metabolism under stress; when you eat a lot of refined white sugar and simple carbohydrates, your body has to pump up insulin production to prevent a dangerous spike in blood sugar levels.Because junk food doesn't contain the protein or complex carbohydrates that your body needs to maintain consistent blood sugar levels, your blood sugar levels will drop suddenly soon after eating. You'll crave sugar and likely end up eating more junk food. Over time, this stress damages your body's ability to use the insulin secreted by your pancrease. A healthy diet can help maintain your body's insulin sensitivity. (Nutrition) When the body does not get proper nut rition, it can become difficult to concentrate.It can also cause depression. Keep all of these health  effects  of  junk  food  in mind before  eating anything; a healthy diet can lead to greater energy levels, improved mood and concentration ability, weight loss, and decreased risk factors for heart disease and diabetes. Though  junk food  may be easy and fast, its health impacts are too great to ignore. Work cited â€Å"Fast Food Nutrition† Fitday. com Tuesday, January 22, 2013 B, Miller. â€Å"Effects of Junk Food† Wisegeek. com Tuesday, January 22, 2013

Biography of Cambodia Politician Pol Pot

Pol Pot. The name is synonymous with horror. Even in the blood-drenched annals of twentieth-century history, Pol Pots Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia stands out for the sheer scale and senselessness of its atrocities. In the name of creating an agrarian communist revolution, Pol Pot and his underlings killed at least 1.5 million of their own people in the infamous Killing Fields. They wiped out between 1/4 and 1/5 of the countrys entire population. Who would do this to their own nation? What kind of monster kills millions in the name of erasing a century of modernization? Who was Pol Pot? Early Life A child named Saloth Sar was born in March of 1925, in the little fishing village of Prek Sbav, French Indochina. His family was ethnically mixed, Chinese and Khmer, and comfortably middle-class. They owned fifty acres of rice paddies, which was ten times as much as most of their neighbors, and a large house that stood on stilts in case the river flooded. Saloth Sar was the eighth of their nine children. Saloth Sars family had connections with the Cambodian royal family. His aunt had a post in the future King Norodoms household, and his first cousin Meak, as well as his sister Roeung, served as royal concubines. Saloth Sars elder brother Suong was also an officer at the palace. When Saloth Sar was ten years old, his family sent him 100 miles south to the capital city of Phnom Penh to attend the Ecole Miche, a French Catholic school. He was not a good student. Later, the boy transferred to a technical school in Kompong Cham, where he studied carpentry. His academic struggles during his youth would actually stand him in good stead for decades to come, given the Khmer Rouges anti-intellectual policies. French Technical College Probably because of his connections rather than his scholastic record, the government gave him the scholarship to travel to Paris, and pursue higher education in the field of electronics and radio technology at the Ecole Francaise dElectronique et dInformatique (EFRIE). Saloth Sar was in France from 1949 to 1953; he spent most of his time learning about Communism rather than electronics. Inspired by Ho Chi Minhs declaration of Vietnamese independence from France, Saloth joined the Marxist Circle, which dominated the Khmer Students Association in Paris. He also joined the French Communist Party (PCF), which lionized the uneducated rural peasantry as the true proletariat, in opposition to Karl Marxs designation of the urban factory-workers as the proletariat. Return to Cambodia Saloth Sar flunked out of college in 1953. Upon his return to Cambodia, he scouted out the various anti-government rebel groups for the PCF and reported that the Khmer Viet Minh was the most effective. Cambodia became independent in 1954 along with Vietnam and Laos, as part of the Geneva Agreement which France used to extract itself from the Vietnam War. Prince Sihanouk played the different political parties in Cambodia off against one another and fixed elections; nonetheless, the leftist opposition was too weak to seriously challenge him either at the ballot box or through a guerrilla war. Saloth Sar became a go-between for the officially recognized left-wing parties and the communist underground. On July 14, 1956, Saloth Sar married teacher Khieu Ponnary. Somewhat incredibly, he got work as a lecturer in French history and literature at a college called Chamraon Vichea. By all reports, his students loved the soft-spoken and friendly teacher. He would soon move up within the communist sphere, as well. Pol Pot Assumes Control of Communists Throughout 1962, the Cambodian government cracked down on communist and other left-wing parties. It arrested party members, shut down their newspapers, and even killed important communist leaders while they were in custody. As a result, Saloth Sar moved up the ranks of surviving party members. In early 1963, a small group of survivors elected Saloth as Secretary of the Communist Central Committee of Cambodia. By March, he had to go into hiding when his name appeared on a list of people wanted for questioning in connection with leftist activities. Saloth Sar escaped to North Vietnam, where he made contact with a Viet Minh unit. With support and cooperation from the much better-organized Vietnamese Communists, Saloth Sar arranged for a Cambodian Central Committee meeting early in 1964. The Central Committee called for armed struggle against the Cambodian government, (rather ironically) for self-reliance in the sense of independence from the Vietnamese Communists, and for a revolution based on the agrarian proletariat, or peasantry, rather than the working class as Marx envisioned it. When Prince Sihanouk unleashed another crack-down against leftists in 1965, a number of elites such as teachers and college students fled the cities and joined the nascent Communist guerrilla movement taking shape in the countryside. In order to become revolutionaries, however, they had to give up their books and drop out. They would become the first members of the Khmer Rouge. Khmer Rouge Take-Over of Cambodia In 1966, Saloth Sar returned to Cambodia and renamed the party the CPK: Communist Party of Kampuchea. The party began to plan for a revolution, but was caught off-guard when peasants across the country rose up in anger over the high price of food in 1966; the CPK was left standing. It wasnt until January 18, 1968, that the CPK started its uprising, with an attack on an army base near Battambang. Although the Khmer Rouge did not overrun the base entirely, they were able to seize a weapons cache which they turned against the police in villages across Cambodia. As violence escalated, Prince Sihanouk went to Paris, then ordered protesters to picket the Vietnamese embassies in Phnom Penh. When the protests got out of hand, between March 8 and 11, he then denounced the protesters for destroying the embassies as well as ethnic Vietnamese churches and homes. The National Assembly learned of this capricious chain of events and voted Sihanouk out of power on March 18, 1970. Although the Khmer Rouge had consistently railed against Sihanouk in its propaganda, the Chinese and Vietnamese communist leaders convinced him to support the Khmer Rouge. Sihanouk went on the radio and called for the Cambodian people to take up arms against the government, and fight for the Khmer Rouge. Meanwhile, the North Vietnamese army also was invading Cambodia, pressing the Cambodian army back to less than 25 kilometers from Phnom Penh. Cambodian Genocide In the name of agrarian communism, the Khmer Rouge decided to completely and immediately remake Cambodian society as a utopian farming nation, free of all foreign influence and the trappings of modernity. They immediately abolished all private property and seized all products of field or factory. The people who lived in cities and towns, some 3.3 million, were driven out to work in the countryside. They were labeled depositees, and were given very short rations with the intention of starving them to death. When party leader Hou Youn objected to the emptying of Phnom Penh, Pol Pot labeled him a traitor; Hou Youn disappeared. Pol Pots regime targeted intellectuals, including anyone with an education, or with foreign contacts, as well as anyone from the middle or upper classes. Such people were tortured horrifically, including by electrocution, pulling out of finger and toenails, and being skinned alive, before they were killed. All of the doctors, the teachers, the Buddhist monks and nuns, and the engineers died. All of the national armys officers were executed. Love, sex, and romance were outlawed, and the state had to approve marriages. Anyone caught being in love or having sex without official permission was executed. Children were not allowed to go to school or to play, they were expected to work and would be summarily killed if they balked. Incredibly, the people of Cambodia did not really know who was doing this to them. Saloth Sar, now known to his associates as Pol Pot, never revealed his identity or that of his party to the ordinary people. Intensely paranoid, Pol Pot reportedly refused to sleep in the same bed two nights in a row for fear of assassination. The Angka included only 14,000 members, but through secrecy and terror tactics, they ruled a country of 8 million citizens absolutely. Those people who were not killed immediately worked in the fields from sun-up to sun-down, seven days a week. They were separated from their families, ate in communal dining messes, and slept in military-style barracks. The government confiscated all consumer goods, piling vehicles, refrigerators, radios, and air conditioners up in the streets and burning them. Among the activities utterly banned were music-making, prayer, using money and reading. Anyone who disobeyed these restrictions ended up in an extermination center or got a swift ax-blow to the head in one of the Killing Fields. Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge sought nothing less than the reversal of hundreds of years of progress. They were willing and able to erase not only the symbols of modernization but also the people associated with it. Initially, the elites bore the brunt of Khmer Rouge excesses, but by 1977 even peasants (base people) were being massacred for offenses such as using happy words. Nobody knows exactly how many Cambodians were murdered during Pol Pots reign of terror, but the lower estimates tend to cluster around 1.5 million, while others estimate 3 million, out of a total population of just over 8 million. Vietnam Invades Throughout Pol Pots reign, border skirmishes flared from time to time with the Vietnamese. A May 1978 uprising by non-Khmer Rouge communists in eastern Cambodia prompted Pol Pot to call for the extermination of all Vietnamese (50 million people), as well as of the 1.5 million Cambodians in the eastern sector. He made a start on this plan, massacring more than 100,000 of the eastern Cambodians by the end of the year. However, Pol Pots rhetoric and actions gave the Vietnamese government a reasonable pretext for war. Vietnam launched an all-out invasion of Cambodia and overthrew Pol Pot. He fled to the Thai borderlands, while the Vietnamese installed a new, more moderate communist government in Phnom Penh. Continued Revolutionary Activity Pol Pot was put on trial in absentia in 1980, and sentenced to death. Nonetheless, from his hideout in the Malai district of Banteay Meanchey Province, near the Cambodia/Thailand border, he continued to direct Khmer Rouge actions against the Vietnamese-controlled government for years. He announced his retirement in 1985, supposedly due to problems with asthma, but continued to direct the Khmer Rouge behind the scenes. Frustrated, the Vietnamese attacked the western provinces and drove the Khmer guerrillas into Thailand; Pol Pot would live in Trat, Thailand for several years. In 1989, the Vietnamese withdrew their troops from Cambodia. Pol Pot had been living in China, where he underwent treatment for facial cancer. He soon returned to western Cambodia but refused to take part in negotiations for a coalition government. A hardcore of Khmer Rouge loyalists continued to terrorize the western regions of the country and waged guerrilla war on the government. In June of 1997, Pol Pot was arrested and put on trial only for the murder of his friend Son Sen. He was sentenced to house arrest for the remainder of his life. Death and Legacy On April 15, 1998, Pol Pot heard the news on a Voice of America radio program that he was going to be turned over to an international tribunal for trial. He died that night; the official cause of death was heart failure, but his hasty cremation raised suspicions that it might have been suicide. In the end, it is difficult to assess Pol Pots legacy. Certainly, he was one of the bloodiest tyrants in history. His delusional plan for reforming Cambodia did set the country back, but it hardly created an agrarian utopia. Indeed, it is only after four decades that Cambodias wounds are beginning to heal, and some sort of normalcy is returning to this utterly ravaged nation. But a visitor does not even have to scratch the surface to find the scars of Cambodias Orwellian nightmare under the rule of Pol Pot. Source: Becker, Elizabeth. When the War Was Over: Cambodia and the Khmer Rouge Revolution, Public Affairs, 1998. Kiernan, Ben. The Pol Pot Regime: Race, Power, and Genocide in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge, Hartford: Yale University Press, 2008. Short, Philip. Pol Pot: Anatomy of a Nightmare, New York: MacMillan, 2006.